the historical and political control exerted over the body has significantly shaped societal categorizations, with the concept of "homosexuality" emerging in the 17th century.
this period, marked by a rationalization of human relations in the western bourgeois context, saw the family institution play a crucial role in defining these norms.
philosopher michel foucault's work highlights how sexuality became increasingly medicalized and rationalized by science in the 19th century. the individual was no longer simply defined by the act of sodomy but rather by an internal, almost spiritual, androgyny or hermaphroditism of the soul.
this marked a shift from the "sodomite" as a relapser to the "homosexual" as a distinct species, a categorization that continues to influence perceptions.
towards the end of the 20th century in the west, a new approach to sexuality emerged through the liberalization of morals and the activism of civil society, particularly in the pursuit of rights for sexual minorities.
queer theorist david halperin's contributions illustrate how the appropriation of sexuality by politics facilitated new freedoms for homosexual individuals, fostering the development of sexual identity as a core concept within queer discourse. however, foucault also cautioned that making sexualities overtly visible could lead to rigid categorizations, reinforcing a stark dichotomy between homosexuality and heterosexuality.
this western influence, despite post-colonial shifts, has notably impacted the arab-muslim world's relationship with sexuality.
in this region, traditional prohibitions against sodomy did not inherently create a distinct divide between heterosexual and homosexual identities prior to this western conceptualization. the influence of western theories on sexual minorities, while advancing rights in the west, has introduced a profoundly western perspective on gender relations and identity.
this framework often subsumes diverse homoerotic practices under a political definition of homosexual identity, inadvertently reinforcing the heterosexual-homosexual binary.
the impact of decolonization and cultural identity on sexuality
following decolonization, many formerly colonized nations in the region began to define themselves in opposition to western hegemony.
this process led to the subject of homosexuality becoming central to the redefinition and reconstruction of arab-muslim identity. the late 20th century witnessed a resurgence of national culture and identity, exemplified by theories like samuel huntington's "clash of civilizations." this renewed focus on cultural identity significantly shaped attitudes towards sexuality in the maghreb and middle east.
a pivotal event illustrating this dynamic was the "queen boat affair" in cairo in 2001.
fifty-five men were arrested at a venue known for its gay-friendly atmosphere and subjected to interrogation and torture. the Egyptian state justified the trial under the High State Security Court, a body that disallowed appeals, by framing the case as a matter of national security and an alleged threat to the authenticity of Egyptian culture.
this high-profile incident, occurring during a period of extended emergency law, served as a temporal reference point, highlighting the growing rigidity in gender relations influenced by the west's perceived cultural particularism.
the intensity of this newfound rigidity often correlates with the influence of political islam within countries.
while less pronounced in the maghreb, in middle eastern nations like kuwait, international visibility of the fight for sexual minority rights and the exchange of ideas via the internet and travel have fostered greater tolerance in certain societal segments.
however, political authorities often struggle to fully grasp the complexities of LGBTQ advocacy due to prevailing traditional customs, leading to a state-driven emphasis on security and increased scrutiny of sexual minorities. initiatives like medical examinations aimed at identifying homosexuals exemplify this trend, though activism continues to face significant misunderstandings and resistance.
social structures, family, and individual identity
the cultural specificities of each country in the region vary, yet the centrality of the family unit remains a dominant force in social order.
family is often conceived as extending beyond the nuclear unit, permeating daily life and prioritizing collective interests over individual ones. this emphasis on the group fosters a concern for appearances and the reputation of families, as individuals often serve as reflections of their familial groups.
navigating social landscapes involves understanding these collective dynamics.
in countries like saudi arabia, where wahhabist islam dictates the death penalty for homosexuality, individuals often negotiate a distinction between private and public spheres.
while public decorum is strictly maintained, the private sphere, particularly the household, is considered almost sacred and can operate as a self-contained society under the husband's authority. this sacredness of home and the traditional gendered separation within society grant homosexual individuals a degree of freedom in private spaces, provided they adeptly manage appearances and exercise discretion.
disparities in the perception of male and female homosexuality
a notable difference exists in how male and female homosexuality are treated.
despite being forbidden by Islamic jurisprudence, female homosexuality receives considerably less attention in fatwas and academic research on regional sexuality.
this disparity may stem from patriarchal assumptions that women are passive in both public and private life, lacking active desire, thereby rendering sapphism—sexuality between women—a less significant issue.
virginity remains a prerequisite for marriage in many arab-muslim societies.
this expectation reinforces the pervasive taboo on sexuality and the importance of outward appearances. some families may overlook or be less concerned about their daughters having relations with other girls, provided it does not jeopardize their marriage prospects, which would be more critically threatened by premarital sexual relations with men.
this differential treatment is further influenced by the interplay between gender relations and homosexuality in social settings.
in most contemporary societies within the region, public spaces are predominantly occupied or easily accessible by men due to the traditional patriarchal division of private (feminine) and public (masculine) spheres.
in places like marrakech's nightclubs and bars, where entry and consumption often require economic capital and a mix with western tourists can foster a more accepting atmosphere for homosexual relations, an economic barrier can create a separation between this counter-space and a less categorized sexuality more prevalent in working-class communities.
this also highlights how affluence can correlate with a more recognized, categorized sexuality and even identity.
this disparity is also evident in gender inequalities, as men traditionally possess greater freedom to move and spend in public spaces compared to women.
the strict enforcement of gendered roles in the region raises questions about its contribution to violence and discrimination against individuals whose sexualities diverge from the heterosexual norm. this potential dysphoria could manifest as frustration, anger, and aggression directed towards those perceived as embodying more flexible gender roles through their sexuality.
historical evolution and contemporary challenges
the historical study of both male and female homosexuality in arab-muslim countries reveals perspectives distinct from those in the west.
prior to colonial influence, forms of homosexuality in the region were often less rigidly defined by the strict heterosexuality-homosexuality dichotomy prevalent in western societies. while homosexuality in its various forms remains largely unaccepted, its study offers insights into the gender relations characteristic of patriarchal societies and the underlying power structures.
negative attitudes towards homosexuality often reinforce patriarchal relations and are sustained by an essentialist binary between men and women.
therefore, fostering more open discourse and promoting greater visibility and rights for individuals with non-heterosexual orientations could contribute to reducing gender inequalities. such progress challenges the very notion of heterosexuality and its associated paradigms of dominance.
historically, the relationship with sexuality in the arab-muslim world has been guided by Quranic precepts, delineating permissible and forbidden bodily practices.
european colonialism in the 19th century played a role in shaping certain sentiments related to sexuality.
currently, a number of middle eastern or muslim-majority countries permit same-sex activity legally, including israel, lebanon, turkey, and jordan.
while LGBTQ individuals in these nations may still encounter discrimination, their sexual orientation and activity are not criminalized. conversely, in countries like qatar, where laws penalize the LGBTQ community, human rights activists are actively pursuing change.
organizations such as the arab foundation for freedoms and equality advocate for greater freedoms for the homosexual community, and groups like helem have emerged to support LGBTQ rights in the region.
recent events, such as the world cup, highlighted ongoing tensions.
at least seven national teams planned to have their captains wear armbands in solidarity with the LGBTQ community, even if it meant facing penalties. however, after FIFA threatened sanctions, all seven captains withdrew their support.